Free Online Education Articles

School Reform Is Hot Topic For Philadelphia Schools

admin — Sat, 11 Oct 2008 06:40:18 +0000

Philadelphia Schools are in dire need of reform. In an effort to achieve this goal, two committees, The Right to Education Task Force and The School Reform Commission, have been formed to focus on improving the situation for all Philadelphia Schools students. A new mission statement, a Declaration of Education, an anti-truancy effort, and summer programs have all been implemented within the district of Philadelphia Schools.

The Right to Education Task Force, which focuses on special education and persons with disabilities served by Philadelphia Schools, strives to do the following:

• Review state and national legislation that affects improvements of special education classes
• Participate in active and meaningful discussion about education concerns, and give recommendations to resolve them
• Serve as advisors and advocates to protect the rights of students with disabilities
• Encourage and facilitate cooperation between public and private agencies and their officials to provide services to persons with disabilities

Philadelphia Schools has put a “School Reform Commission” in place in order to continue the improvement of Philadelphia Schools. The commission’s mission statement is as follows: “The mission of …Philadelphia Schools is to provide a high quality education that prepares, ensures, and empowers all students to achieve their full intellectual and social potential in order to become lifelong learners and productive members of society.” The Commission has set several target goals for themselves, teachers, administrators, and staff, which they hope to achieve by June of 2008. These goals include Early Literacy, Academic Achievement, a Safe and Orderly Environment, Community Collaboration, Equity, Efficient and Effective Philadelphia Schools, and improved Support Operations.

Among other efforts, Philadelphia Schools have teamed up with Mayor John F. Street to implement a citywide anti-truancy initiative. The program is designed to ensure that school-aged children and teens are actually present in their Philadelphia Schools, and that their parents are aware of truancy laws. The initiative also intends to assure that parents and students alike are aware that the City, Philadelphia Schools, and the Family Court plan to hold them accountable.

In addition, Philadelphia Schools offer numerous summer programs that both keep kids off the streets, and serve to help students who have fallen behind in their studies. The programs are focused on academic enhancement and enrichment, and are mandatory for any 1st – 8th grader who did not achieve proficiency in a core subject, such as Math or Reading. Eighth graders who need additional help meeting Philadelphia Schools promotion criteria and 12th graders needing additional credits to graduate are eligible.

Mark S. Schweiker, President and CEO of the Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce sums it up by saying, “The reformation of the Philadelphia public schools serves as a model for the entire nation. As the Greater Philadelphia Chamber of Commerce touts the advantages of this region to the world, our rapidly improving public school system is an example that Greater Philadelphia is a progressive place to live and raise a family.”

Patricia Hawke is a staff writer for Schools K-12, providing free, in-depth reports on all U.S. public and private K-12 schools. For more information please visit schoolsk-12.com/Pennsylvania/Philadelphia/index.html Philadelphia Public Schools

Why Go to School, When You Can Be Online Learning Law?

admin — Sat, 11 Oct 2008 00:40:18 +0000

Now that the Internet has made higher education more accessible, why would anyone still think it was advisable to go to school to become a lawyer? If you can go online learning law, you’d be saved transportation fees, as well as the time it takes to commute from your residence to campus. Time is, in fact, one of the biggest factors that drive people to consider online schooling: some people, notably family people and working professionals, find it hard to afford the time to participate in classroom activities.

So, why go to school to become a lawyer, when you can be online learning law? Make no mistake, there are still a number of advantages to classroom education. The lessons you learn in a classroom are no more difficult than the lessons you have to learn online, for one thing. Getting a college degree online is no piece of cake! Just because a course is offered online, doesn’t mean you can escape from mountains of reading material, harrying term paper and exam deadlines, terror teachers, and the scrutiny of your peers.

The thing is, classroom education, especially for lawyers, provides an entirely different learning atmosphere. You are better able to know your classmates and recognize them as colleagues, for example - you have more time to understand their professional styles, and get a better feel of the environment you will be getting into as a lawyer. Of course, if you are already working in a law office while taking the course, you may already be as immersed as you feel you should be. Still, there is nothing like building new connections and interpersonal relationships inside a classroom.

You can still correspond with your classmates online through email and private messaging, of course. There are also the occasional meetup and group research activities, which could be a good launchpad for getting to know your classmates online.

Incidentally, some schools may still offer “correspondence courses” or “distance learning” programs - these may not be offered online, but the same principle behind online learning applies. The school sends you the materials (or at least the required reading list, depending on your arrangement with the faculty and the admissions department) by post, and you complete the course requirements on your own schedule. The important thing is that you submit all the requirements on time.

More and more schools that offer distance learning programs are discovering the power of the Internet. If you can go online learning law, you can also discover the advantages of taking your classes online. But never dismiss the importance of a classroom education!

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Obtaining An Online Nursing Degree

admin — Fri, 10 Oct 2008 18:40:18 +0000

Pursuing an online nursing degree is an excellent option for someone who just can not afford college full-time, or who is already a part of the work force, but is looking for a better career.

Nursing provides an excellent career option as a result of the tremendous demand for new nurses, and pay that is quite competitive in the job market.

In an effort to provide educational options for aspiring nurses, many schools with nursing programs have expanded their course offerings to the online community. Should an applicant be accepted for online training, the only thing necessary will be a computer, and any software program provided by or required by the nursing school.

While most classroom lectures can be conducted over the Internet, the student is still required to come to school in order to complete certain requirements for their degree. An example would be the necessary lab work that will be part of the nursing degree program. Nursing is a hands on career, and theory must be put into practice. Nurses work closely with doctors during many procedures including surgery, and this type of educational training can’t be done by clicking on a mouse.

While many of the various online programs are similar to those being offered on campus, students are advised to first research any areas of specialization they may be interested in. This will be a big help when deciding on just which online educational offering to enroll.

The student should ask whether the online school year is the same as that of a regular college, or are there opportunities to study at a faster pace in order to finish much earlier. Ask also about something called “rolling admissions”. This allows a student to enroll and begin learning right away, even during the summer months when the physical campus may be closed. This eliminates the need for the online student to wait for formal classes to begin.

Will there be guidance, and advice available to an online student much like that offered in high school through a guidance counselor? This can be a very valuable asset for someone studying online, and should be asked about before making a final decision.

Finally, the most important thing to know before enrolling in any online nursing program is the cost. Online rates can very quite a bit, and should a student be looking for the best online training available, it’s a good idea to inquire about any possible scholarship offerings for deserving students.

Do your homework before deciding which online school to enroll in for your nursing degree. Generally, graduation can come in a year and a half, or two years. At that time a student can look forward to the beginning of a rewarding, and satisfying career in the professional field of nursing.

Carl DiNello is an Article Author whose articles are featured on websites covering the Internet’s most popular topics.

To read more on this topic, please visit nursing.lkr-healthinformation.com/ Nursing Jobs & Training Resources!

You may republish this article on your website, or e-zine so long as none of the content, or author information has been edited or changed in any way, and all links are left active and unchanged.

Technology - Prosperity

admin — Fri, 10 Oct 2008 12:40:18 +0000

Technology makes the world go ’round — and the more sophisticated our world becomes, the more we can’t live without it. But technology in the wrong hands (Lex Luthor, anyone?) can crash the entire system. That’s why there’s a need for qualified professionals behind the scenes in technology management. And, to sweeten the deal, with this great responsibility comes great financial rewards.

Opportunities Abound
The expansion of e-commerce and Wi-Fi has created excellent job opportunities for those who can manage business and technology effectively. That’s where you’ll find technology management — at the place where business and technology intersect.

As a trained professional in this up-and-coming field, you’re responsible for determining technical and business goals and making detailed plans for the accomplishment of these goals within your organization. Your job description might encompass everything from constructing a business plan to overseeing network security to directing Internet operations.

Training Is Available
Clearly, you’ll need to be skilled in the latest technology to ensure your organization stays ahead of the competition. That’s where a technology management degree comes in. With that kind of technical education, you’ll gain core business, technology, and leadership skills that will prepare you to manage and deliver successful information systems and solutions.

A bachelor’s degree is a typical prerequisite for a career in technology management, and a technology-specific MBA can give you the edge you’ll need to succeed. Unlike a traditional MBA, a technology management degree emphasizes information technology in addition to standard business curriculum.

The Work Is Worth It
According to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), professionals in technology management held about 280,000 jobs in 2004. And employment is expected to grow faster than the average for all occupations through the year 2014.

If you have a technology management degree, job opportunities are plentiful, and the salary is sweet, too. In May 2004, the BLS reports median annual earnings for these managers were $92,570. And according to Robert Half International, a professional staffing and consulting services firm, average starting salaries for high-level information technology managers in 2005 ranged from $80,250 to $112,250.

With that kind of incentive, how can you refuse a technology career?

To find college and career schools near you, surf

How to Calm Your Nerves Before a Psychic Reading

admin — Fri, 10 Oct 2008 06:40:18 +0000

Giving a psychic reading can be extremely challenging in the sense that you have to know how to calm your nerves down before offering a psychic reading to another person. Most psychics find that a psychic reading drains their energy. A psychic energy drains your energy because you are using your mind to create something that is unspoken of for a psychic client. A psychic actually sess pictures in their mind for another person and interprets them for the psychic client. It can be extremely stressful for a psychic because they feel pressured to give the psychic client an accurate psychic reading.

When a psychic client hears the psychics words, they may or may not believe in what the psychic is saying. The psychic must not allow the psychic client to control the psychic reading. The psychic client cannot see what you are seeing. If you find that the psychic client is constantly interrupting you during the psychic reading, then you may decide to either cancel the psychic reading or let your psychic client know that they are distracting you from seeing through your third eye. Many psychics do not work on the psychic hotline because a psychic reading is often rushed. When a client is paying the psychic by the minute, the psychic may feel rushed and bombarded by question after question. When the psychic is doing the psychic reading for the client in person, the psychic usually tells the client what they see without any questions asked. The psychic has more control of the reading when its either given in person or at a distance. When someone keeps interrupting your vision, its hard to tell them what you see. It’s not your fault if you are giving inaccurate information if the psychic client keeps on interrupting your during the psychic reading. It can become very frustrating for you to get interrupted every time that you are giving a psychic reading.

Before giving anyone a psychic reading, make sure that you are ready mentally. You must practice some form of prayer and meditation before each psychic session so that you can ensure yourself that you are in tune with the psychic reading themselves. The more in tune that you are with a psychic reading, the more in tune you will be with the understanding of what the psychic reading actually means to both you and to your client. You may also want to light a candle during a psychic reading to create more of a peaceful energy between you and your psychic client. The more peaceful that you are during the psychic reading, the more attentive your psychic client will be to you as well. Always allow your own spiritual energy to see a psychic client warming up to you. Give yourself a pat on the back each time that you allow yourself to focus on something very real. The psychic reading is supposed to help the client to gain an understanding of themselves better and their current surrounding situation. Remember to stay calm during the psychic reading because if you get nervous, you may indeed give out inaccurate information.

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“Psychic Sponge Syndrome”: The Easy Inner-Centrifuge Remedy

admin — Fri, 10 Oct 2008 00:40:18 +0000

Here’s a nifty trick to use to clear yourself of any psychic “stuff” you may pick up as you move through the world. I learned the basic format for it from a woman who had the booth space adjacent to mine at a tradeshow. Being someone who had not yet mastered the art of being open-hearted without sponging up the energy of others, I was walking around like a zombie on day two of the show, after having been immersed in the circus of conflicting energies the day before . My booth neighbor asked me what was going on with me, as I was obviously not as radiant as I had been on day one. When I explained that I had soaked up too much chaotic energy and didn’t know how to rid myself of it, she said, “Oh. You just need to spin it off.” And I said, “Cool! HOW?!”

Here is the basic method she gave me, with my own refinements added.

1. Go somewhere where you can be out of the hustle bustle and get centered (once you are practiced at this, you can do it anywhere, in any situation).

2. Imagine that there’s an axis that starts 12 inches above the top of your head and extends down through your body to 12 inches below your feet.

3. Pretend that you’re a salad spinner and, in your mind, spin your energy counter-clockwise on your axis, imagining any inharmonious, “yucky” energy flying out from you by centrifugal force, just as the water spins out of lettuce in a salad spinner. With each exhale, imagine it spinning faster.

To assure that you’re not adding pollution to the atmosphere around you, you can either imagine that this undesirable “gunk” hits the outside wall of the container, then runs down and drains into Mother Earth where it can transmuted and used as fertilizer, OR, you can see it transforming into golden drops of pure Love as it spins away from your axis, blessing the world as it flies further and further out from center.

I always feel VERY refreshed, enlivened, clear and centered after doing this, and have taught it to many others, who report the same effect! Once you practice it a few times and can do it without needing to focus on it, you can run your inner centrifuge without having to stop–simply “turn it on” sporadically as you go about your business to keep yourself clear.

©2005 Julia Rogers Hamrick

Julia Rogers Hamrick has been a spiritual-growth facilitator for over two decades, and is the author of Recreating Eden: The Exquisitely Simple, Divinely Ordained Plan for Transforming Your Life and Your Planet. Julia writes about and leads seminars on proactive joy, and the relationship between frequency and experience. For more information on Julia and on recreating Eden, visit recreating-eden.com recreating-eden.com To read about Julia’s own dance with Spirit, ego, and frequency, read Julia’s blog, accessible from her website.

Physician Assistant Online (PA)

admin — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 18:40:18 +0000

Online Physician Assistant Schools, colleges, and universities provide master degree programs for continuing education in specializations to enhance skills in diagnostics, therapeutics, and preventive health care services. Online Physician Assistant colleges and universities present courses via the Internet for specialization in sports medicine, family medicine, emergency medicine, forensic medicine, occupational medicine, leadership, and education.

Physician Assistants are highly specialized and practice non-invasive medicine to provide patient care directly under the supervision of a physician or surgeon in medical offices, in hospitals, in sport facilities, and in other areas where medicine is practiced. Physician Assistants play vital support roles that help doctors make the most of their time, while reducing costs for patients and health insurance companies.

Physician Assistants work with patients to gain medical history; to give injections; to instruct and counsel patients; to examine, diagnose, and treat minor injuries; to request and interpret results of laboratory test; and to perform therapy.

Physician Assistants are licensed medical professionals who have completed their education at a National Academy of Physician Assistants (NAPA) accredited school. Online programs that offer studies for Physician Assistants focus on furthering studies for the purpose of gaining master degrees in specialized areas of the profession.

If you are interested in learning more about Online Physician Assistant Schools and online master degrees for Physician Assistants, search our site for more in-depth information and resources.

Copyright 2006 - All Rights Reserved
Michael Bustamante, in association with Media Positive Communications, Inc. for SchoolsGalore.com

Notice to Publishers: Please feel free to use this article in your Ezine or on your Website; however, ALL links must remain intact and active.

Michael Bustamante is a staff writer for Media Positive Communications, Inc. in association with schoolsgalore.com/ SchoolsGalore.com. Find schoolsgalore.com/categories/4/physician_assistant_online_schools.html Physician Assistant Online at SchoolsGalore.com; meeting your needs as your educational resource to locate schools.

Smart Dust and Virtual Keyboards

admin — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 12:40:18 +0000

Using Smart Dust which is sprinkled onto a rock it maybe possible to type information into a small computer or PDA very rapidly. This could be quite handy for many things such as; Search and Rescue, Fire Fighting, Civil Air Patrol, Hikers and Mountain Climbers and of course military applications. Think for a second the possibilities for Net Centric Warfare for Special Forces Troops. But how exactly can all this work? Well, simple really, you find a flat rock and spinkle your micro-electro-mechanical “Smart Dust and then put on a set of glasses which has a little clip on lens which has a grid pattern of a key board. Then you move your fingers across the virtual keyboard as if typing onto the rock. It is quite easy to use actually because your eyes see it as if it is real on the rock and the glasses you are wearing interpret each tap onto the pressure sensitive smart dust as a strike. The data is then put into a small computer you wear connected to the glasses by a wire. The data is then sent through a hot or helmet and uploaded directly to the satellite.

The possibilities and uses are endless and completely revolutionize the amount of communication gear the soldier, fire jumper, first responder or search and rescue personal have to carry. For those super enthusiasts with everything, including GPS and Satellite Phones, now they can send and receive email. Those with the latest wrist watch communication devices shown by Bill Gates at the CES show can use the system without making noise which could give away their position with thru the use of voice activated software. Indeed, a hunter, soldier or downed military pilot waiting for extraction can send and receive emails via satellite in safety. Think on this.

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Online Education – Today’s Buzzword

admin — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 06:40:18 +0000

Students world over are whole-heartedly accepting online education. The advantages of online education have made it the popular mode of education among the students of all age groups in all parts of the world. This growing popularity of online education has led to the emergence of a large number of educational institutions offering online education for a wide range of subjects. The growth of educational institutions offering relearning facilities has been significantly high in the US, Europe and the developed nations of the world.

Online Education- Changing Perception

In the past people perceived online education as an unserious and unscrupulous way of laying hands of a fast degree and getting good grades without much effort and hard work. People also had doubts about the reputation of education institutes offering online education. However, the times have changes significantly and today the majority of educational institutions offering online education are well established. Most of the world’s leading education institutions have commenced online programs, which vindicate the validity of online education. Most of the online courses offer in-depth learning to the students in their respective educational modules.

Factors Contributing To The Growth of Online Education

Online education is becoming popular because most of the educational institutions offering online courses ensure qualitative learning. Talented professors and subject matter experts are at the helm of affairs at almost all accredited universities and colleges offering online courses and online degree programs. The students can be assured of good results in such courses.

Here are some factors that have contributed to the fast paced growth of online education:

· Flexible schedule

The biggest advantage of online education is that the students can do effective utilization of their time, which is the most precious resource. People participating in online education have the freedom of maintaining a flexible schedule, which helps them tremendously and it has come as a boon for the people who are working and want to continue their education.

· Student-Centered Learning

The students in online education have an advantage because they are in charge of their learning experience. The students can prioritize their schedule and complete the assignments as per their comfort levels and convenience. This is possible because the teachers in online mode of education are not teaching you all the time. As an online student, you have the liberty to select the mode of learning.

· Fair Playing Field

Online education is growing in popularity because it offers a level playing field to all the students. When you are learning online, your performance is the only criterion that affects the decision-making and your gender, race, ethnicity, nationality, and other considerations do not cloud the decision making process. This is one of the major factors contributing to the growth of online education.

All these advantages of online education may prompt you to join e learning. However, before you take the plunge and enroll in an online course, please make sure that you are familiar with the methodology of online education.

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Contact Metamorphism

admin — Thu, 09 Oct 2008 00:40:18 +0000

Here’s an old paper I had kicking around on the computer. The topic is contact metamorphism, a sort of dry and lifeless topic but it might be possible to apply a little of the information to detecting when it comes to when, how and under what conditions minerals form in these environments. It’s possible that there might be some weird formatting issues since this was originally in wordperfect, then switched to a text file and then to microsoft word. If you get something out of it, then enjoy. I’d forgotten some of the stuff in this paper myself.

Rex

You can download a Microsoft Word version double-spaced with paragraphs below for the time being: verzend.be/v/9171867/geo_cont_meta.doc.html
or select the text above and put it in a program such as Microsoft Word and double space it for easier reading.

INTRODUCTION

The topic of contact metamorphism is very broad, thus, this report will only focus on the factors which affect the process of contact metamorphism and review the various types of contact metamorphism. The igneous intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon in Idaho will also be considered in this report. The factors involved within the process of contact metamorphism include: the temperature of the igneous intrusion, the water content at the intrusion, the variety of countryrock, and the size of the intrusion.
The process of contact metamorphism occurs mainly due to the high temperatures of intrusive igneous bodies which surround local countryrock. The exertion of pressure is a minimal factor in contact metamorphism compared to regionally metamorphosed rocks.

FACTORS IN CONTACT METAMORPHISM

The temperature of the intrusion is one principal factor in determining a specific metamorphic facies. For example, temperatures at the intrusive contact as well as that of the surrounding countryrock are partially responsible for the extent of metamorphic aureoles. They also help determine general mineralogical composition at the site of contact metamorphism (Malamed, et al. 648). The duration of an elevated temperature also affects the size of the metamorphic aureole and the resulting mineral assemblage of the intrusion. In fact, it appears that for contact metamorphism at greater depths, each increase of 100 degrees Celsius in the magma, will increase the size of the aureole by fifteen percent (Malamed et al. 650).

Higher temperatures also usually help facilitate rapid nucleation of new minerals, thus, producing faster crystal growth (Con Gillen 29).
Water content at the intrusion also significantly influences contact metamorphism evolution. In fact, water is the most important crustal fluid to affect contact metamorphic aureoles (Kerrick 49, 10). Water sources may be “internally derived” from the hydrated countryrock or from within the magma itself (Harte et al. 421). The structure of water facilitates the dissolution of compounds (Kerrick 49), and it also affects the rate of recrystallization (Con Gillen 31).

Even though water plays such an important role in contact metamorphism, more often than not, contact metamorphism tends to be isochemical in nature. Therefore, most contact metamorphism transfers heat by way of conduction and not convection in fluid (Melamed et al. 650). However, when isochemical metamorphism occurs, there is no great alteration in the chemistry of the rock formation in contact with the pluton (Kerrick 9). Therefore, if the bulk of the rock is to alter in chemistry it is important that there be a way for the proper percolation of water. The heat transfer by conduction is probably still within water saturated rocks. Yet, these rocks only allow a little or no percolation due to its’ impermeability or inherent limited fracture systems (Melamed et al. 650). However, when fluids freely percolate, calculations show that the heating of rock overwhelmingly occurs by conduction (Melamed et al. 650). When water percolates, it may help alter the equilibrium assemblages and the composition of rock in advanced stages. This advanced stage of rock compositional replacement is a process known as metasomatism (Harte et al. 406).

It must also be noted that water is an important factor in the formation of ore deposits at areas of contact metamorphism. This is because skarns, which are the host rocks for ore deposits, are caused by metasomatism (Kerrick 9). Skarns form by metasomatism between intrusives and carbonate rocks. Water may also allow for hydrothermal vents to form which contain ore deposits in areas of contact metamorphism.

The countryrock around the igneous intrusion is another important factor which determines the formation of localized minerals that occur as a consequence of contact metamorphism. Countryrock may be divided into three generalized categories. They are: basites, elites, and carbonate deposits (Reverdatto 1226). Basites include argillaceous sediments such as shales, mudstones (Con Gillan 47), and tuffaceous rocks (Reverdatto 1227). Elites include granitoids while carbonate deposits include various dolomites, marls, and limestones (Reverdatto 1227).

First, we will examine the effects of argillaceous sediments within the countryrock on contact metamorphism. Argillaceous sediments such as shale and mudstone are composed of very small sediments, therefore, the grains have a large surface area. Since chemical reactions take place mainly at these boundaries the reactions become more rapid in fine grained shale and mudstone (Con Gillen 48). This is especially true in the presence of water (Con Gillen 48). Furthermore, shales and mudstones inherently contain water in their mineral composition. This further increases the possible reaction efficiency to form new minerals (Con Gillen 47). Shales and mudstones also contain a variety of mineral grains which are decomposed products of feldspar, mica, pyroxene, olivine, iron ore, organic matter, and quartz. These minerals contain compounds such as: sulfides, sulfates, chlorides, chlorine, carbon dioxide, carbon, etc. (Con Gillen 47). This assemblage of decomposed minerals and chemical compounds in shale and mudstone creates a wide array of possible new mineral which may result from this metamorphosed argillaceous sediment (Con Gillen 47).

Carbonate rocks also have an effect on the mineral types that result from contact metamorphism. Carbonate rocks metamorphose to form marbles When carbonate rocks are thermally altered they also form skarns (Con Gillen 53). Impurities in carbonate rocks may also react to form other minerals such as periclase, or wollastonite (Con Gillen 53). The minerals which generally indicate the grade of metamorphism from low to high in this type of countryrock are: talc, amphibole, pyroxene, olivine, periclase, and wollastonite (Con Gillen 55).

The intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon is a good example of carbonate rocks coming into contact with a pluton. The intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon has been dated as occurring during the Eocene epoch approximately 45 million years ago (Kowallis). The Jefferson Dolomite of this region was metamorphosed to form marble (Kowallis). The organic material in the Jefferson dolomite may have contributed to the variety of minerals found at this site of contact metamorphism.

The intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon may also contain ore deposits if the resulting mineralogical compositions would not allow ores such as copper or tungsten, etc. to bind with them (Kowallis). If these metallic ores could not be incorporated in the mineralogical assemblage they are expelled into fissures within the countryrock. Also, if the intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon is a skarn (which forms from metasomatism or from the significant elemental replacement of carbonate rocks) (Kerrick 9), the area surrounding the intrusion would be even more likely to include ore deposits since skarns characteristically allow the movement of fluids during contact metamorphism. The pluton near Horseshoe Canyon does conform to the criteria for contact carbonate rocks which are an ingredient in skarns, since they are present at this site of contact metamorphism. However, this report does not find sufficient evidence to label the intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon as producing the formation of a skarn.

Pluton size is another factor which also affects contact metamorphism. A large pluton helps to form a contact aureole of metamorphosed countryrock (Con Gillen 47), while a very thin dike or sill in contact with the countryrock will not allow mineral reactions to take place. Instead, the rocks in contact with the pluton will only become more hardened and baked by the heat (Con Gillen 46).

TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

There are six types of contact metamorphism (Malamed, Reverdatto, Sharapov 648). The first four types form at shallow depths of 8-10 kilometers and occur within the low pressure of 2-3 kilobars (Reverdatto 1226). The last two facies occur at greater depths with increased pressures (Malamed, Reverdatto, Sharapov 648).

Type One Metamorphism

The first type of contact metamorphism includes the Spurrite-merwinite or pyroxene-hornfel facies. It is a high temperature, single facies type of contact metamorphism (Reverdatto 1225). It is usually has an intrusive body composed of dolerites and basalts. The dimensions of their resulting metamorphic aureoles are only a few meters to some tens of meters across (Reverdatto 1226). This type of metamorphism occurs in sill, stocks, dikes and other such subvolcanic bodies (Reverdatto 1227).

Even though five of the types of contact metamorphism can be explained by quiet cooling of magma and crystallization, the first type of metamorphism cannot be explained by this origin, since temperatures often exceed 900 Celsius (Malamed et al. 649). Such high temperatures may indicate a certain velocity which forms a “heat wave”(Malamed et al. 649). This hypothesis may explain why this type of metamorphism occurs within intrusive bodies of basic or gabbroid magma (Reverdatto 21). However, gabbroid magma is already a hotter magma, so it may be inferred that this alone may be sufficient to cause a 900 degree Celsius heat source. This level of contact metamorphism also requires a constant source of intense heat (Reverdatto 90).

Type Two Metamorphism

Type two metamorphism is a high temperature contact metamorphism which is slightly below type one metamorphism in regard to temperature. It includes three possible mineralogical facies. These facies include:
pyroxene-hornfels, amphibole-hornfels, and muscovite hornfels. The type two variety of contact metamorphism results from gabbroid and dioritic stocks, thick dikes, lopoliths, and thick sills (Reverdatto 1227). Type two metamorphism is associated more than 65-70 percent of the time with gabbros and other intermediate intrusive rocks (Reverdatto 1225).

The maximum temperature for this type of contact metamorphism is 1700 degrees Celsius while 700 degrees Celsius is the approximate minimal temperature for its’ formation (Reverdatto 92). The size of their aureoles are dependant upon the size and temperature of the intrusion. They extend hundreds of meters up to 2 kilometers (Reverdatto 1226). Type two metamorphism does not require a steady transfer of heat unlike type one contact metamorphism. Instead, it forms due to transient heat at the exocontact of the intrusion (Reverdatto 90).

Type Three Metamorphism

Type three metamorphism is composed of amphibole-hornfels, and muscovite-hornfels (Reverdatto 1226). It is a medium temperature three facies type (Reverdatto 1225). Approximately eighty percent of the intrusions associated with this type of contact metamorphism are granitic in origin (Reverdatto 1225). Type three contact metamorphism is formed by medium to larger sized plutons which develop aureoles of hundreds of meters up to 3 kilometers in diameter (Reverdatto 1226). The minimal required temperature for this type of contact metamorphism is 550-600 degrees Celsius (Reverdatto 195). This minimal temperature is requisite to melt the country rock at the given parameters of pressure within this metamorphic facies.

Type three contact metamorphism is particularly interesting because it appears to correspond with the metamorphism occurring at the pluton near Horseshoe Canyon. Some minerals listed as occurring in type three metamorphism include: magnetite, plagioclase, tremolite, diopside, garnet, etc. (Reverdatto 181). Each of these minerals were also observed or are known to occur at the contact area of the pluton occurring near Horseshoe Canyon. In fact, Grossular garnet which occurs at this site, has a optimal temperature formation range of 500-700 degrees Celsius (Reverdatto 223). This temperature range also corresponds to the temperatures requisite for type three metamorphism.

The association of minerals grouped above also are diagnostic of a type three metamorphic intrusion that is in contact with adjacent carbonate rocks. The intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon is also an example of an intrusion which does come into contact with carbonate rocks. The contact of the intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon with carbonate rocks provides calcium for the formation of minerals such as diopside. Diopside is a pyroxene which is composed of calcium and magnesium (Kowallis).

The tremolite, a white amphibole, which formed at the pluton near Horseshoe Canyon, may have formed at lower temperatures than the diopside; since diopside it is a pyroxene that forms at higher temperatures (Reverdatto 179). These two minerals constitute the separation of a subfacies in the amphibole-hornfels facies (Reverdatto 179) and both are found at the igneous intrusion near Horseshoe Canyon.

In this type of low pressure environment Almandine garnet will form if the country rock is composed of metapelitic hornfelses (Reverdatto 181). The pluton near Horseshoe Canyon is not in contact with metapelitic hornfelses, therefore almandine garnet was not observed as an accessory mineral at this site of contact metamorphism. Some additional accessory minerals associated with this facies include forsterite, diopside, and spinel (Reverdatto 181).

Type Four Metamorphism

Type four metamorphism formation is not dependent upon magma composition but rather the size of the intrusive body and the rapid cooling of the magma near the surface. Even though type four contact metamorphism is not dependant upon magma composition, this type of contact metamorphism chiefly occurs with granitoids and not gabbroid magma (Reverdatto 1225). This type of metamorphism is a low temperature single facies type composed of muscovite-hornfels (Reverdatto 1225). Their aureole sizes are much smaller than those contained in the previously discussed contact metamorphism types. They range in size from centimeters and reach rarely up to one meter across (Reverdatto 1226).

The last two types of contact metamorphism only result from granitoid intrusions (Reverdatto 1226). They also occur at increased pressures and therefore are called contact metamorphism only because an igneous intrusion is still a the primary catalyst in the process of this type of metamorphism (Melamed et al. 648 ).

Type Five Metamorphism

Type five metamorphism is composed of a complex of regional metamorphism at moderate pressures (Reverdatto 1225). It is a “plutonometamorphosed” or contact-regional metamorphic type (Reverdatto 1226). Type five contact metamorphism aureoles are several kilometers up to ten kilometers in diameter (Reverdatto 1226).

Type Six Metamorphism

The sixth type of contact metamorphism has a facies of biotite-sillimanite gneisses, muscovite-staurolite and kyanite schists of regional metamorphism (Reverdatto 1226). It is a type of “prezometamorphosed” rock formed under moderately low temperatures and locally increased pressure (Reverdatto 1225). Higher temperature contact metamorphism would alter these minerals forming other minerals such as andalusite and cordierite (Ferguson and Al-Ameen 506).

Type six metamorphism has the lowest temperature and in fields of low pressure the threshold for its’ metamorphism is about 450-500 Celsius (Reverdatto 216). These very low metamorphic temperatures also prevent rapid mineral growth (Reverdatto 217). At this metamorphic phase almandine garnet does not occur but instead is replaced by chlorite, quartz, and magnetite (Reverdatto 217). Even though type six metamorphism has relatively low temperatures the aureoles within it are up to three kilometers in width and they can be even broader in some instances Reverdatto 1226).

Conclusion

The temperature and pressure of the intrusion during contact metamorphism may be considered together as the most important factors affecting metamorphic grade. These factors help determine mineral facies as well as aureole size. Water content as well as the surrounding countryrock also are important variables within the process of contact metamorphism. They affect mineral dissolution and mineral recrystallization. Water also contributes to the formation of hydrothermal vents containing ore deposits.

Argillaceous sediments may increase the quantity of minerals in an aureole and the formation of ore deposits. Water supply, temperature, and argillaceous sediment all contribute to the rapid formation of minerals. The interpretation of the pluton near Horseshoe Canyon is that of an intrusion displaying minerals within the amphibole-hornfel facies or a type three contact metamorphic pluton. By analyzing the local minerals and conditions required for their formation as well as the size of an aureole and the structure of a pluton metamorphic grade can be successfully determined by the geologist.

REFERENCES

Con Gillen, C., Metamorphic Geology, George Allen and Unwin , Boston, 1982.

Ferguson, C.C., and S.I. Al-Ameen, Contact metamorphism in Omey granite aureole, Mineral. Mag., 49, 509, 1985.

Harte, B., D.R.M. Pattison, S. Heus-Albichler, S. Hoernes, L. Masch, and S. Weiss, Evidence of fluid phase behaviour and controls in the intrusive complex and its aureole, Equilibrium and Kinetics an Contact Metamorphism: The Ballachulish Igneous Complex and its Aureole, Springer-Verlag, New York, 1991.

Kerrick, D.M., Overview of Contact Metamorphism, Contact Metamorphism: Reviews in Mineralogy, 26, 10, 1991.

Labotka, T.C., Chemical and Physical Properties of Fluids, Contact Metamorphism: Reviews in Mineralogy, 26, 49, 1991.

Melamed, V.G., V.V. Reverdatto, and V.N. Sharapov, Factors in contact metamorphism, Internat’l Geo. Rev., 15, 6, 648-651, 1973.

Reverdatto, V.V., Types of Contact Metamorphism, Internat’l Geo. Rev., 13, 8, 1225-1227, 1971.

Reverdatto V.V., The Facies of Contact Metamorphism, D. A. Brown, 1973.

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Rex Biggers
Professor Kowallis
Geology 210
1 October 1999